Bahrain Freedom of Opinion and Expression Report – Mid-Year 2026: A New McCarthyism in Times of War

Bahrain Press Association, 20 July 2026: The first half of 2026 marked a significant shift in the nature of restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression in Bahrain. Security and judicial measures expanded beyond targeting political speech to encompass documenting events, disseminating information, republishing content, and expressing personal views on social media platforms. The crackdown further extended to religious freedoms, beliefs, and the religious and cultural practices associated with the Ashura commemorations. This transformation coincided with the Israeli–U.S. war against Iran, which created a political and security environment that facilitated tighter control over the public sphere and an expanded use of criminal legislation against various forms of peaceful expression.

This report employs the term “a new McCarthyism” to describe a pattern of incitement, reputational attacks, and prosecutions that associates peaceful expression and citizens’ religious beliefs with allegations of treason, threats to national security, and sympathy for an enemy state. As a result, opinions and perceived loyalties have increasingly become the object of criminalization rather than identifiable unlawful conduct.

The Bahrain Press Association’s monitoring indicates that this approach extended across broad segments of society, particularly targeting religious scholars, social media users, civil society activists, preachers, rowadid (Shi’a religious reciters), heads of ma’tams (Shi’a congregation halls where Ashura commemorations are organized), and participants in religious observances. This reflects both the widening scope of those targeted and the erosion of the distinction between legitimate security concerns and the exercise of freedom of expression.

The report documents a marked increase in the use of arrests, prosecutions, criminal convictions, and administrative measures against peaceful expression, alongside the continued absence of an independent press and the further decline of media pluralism in the country. It also records the expansion of restrictions into the religious sphere through prior censorship of Hussaini rituals and the targeting of religious scholars and preachers participating in Ashura commemorations, illustrating how restrictions spread from the political sphere into religious and cultural life.

During the reporting period, the Bahrain Press Association documented at least 181 arrests and detentions linked to the exercise of freedom of opinion and expression, publication, or participation in religious observances. It also documented 25 cases in which religious scholars and reciters were prohibited from participating in Ashura ceremonies, at least 16 prison sentences, and hundreds of summonses, interrogations, prosecutions, and other restrictive measures.

These figures represent the minimum number of verified violations. In several documented incidents, the precise number of victims could not be independently established, indicating that the actual scale of violations is likely to be considerably higher.

The report concludes that the first half of 2026 marked a new phase in the management of public space in Bahrain, characterized by the expansion of criminalization and the redefinition of security threats to encompass a broad spectrum of peaceful expression. Religious beliefs, political opinions, media activities, and religious practices were increasingly associated with allegations of treason and threats to national security. This approach fostered an atmosphere of fear and self-censorship that bears significant resemblance to the practices historically associated with McCarthyism.

Fifteen Years of Escalating Restrictions

Since the beginning of 2026, the Bahraini authorities have continued a pattern of restricting freedom of opinion and expression that has persisted for more than fifteen years. During this period, hundreds of journalists, photographers, and civil society activists have been arrested, while numerous individuals have been subjected to summonses, investigations, and criminal convictions characterized by severe penalties imposed through proceedings that failed to provide reasonable guarantees of due process and fair trial standards. Public space for expressing religious beliefs, political opinions, criticism, and even documenting daily events has continued to shrink, particularly following the outbreak of the Gulf conflict and the repeated Iranian attacks against Bahrain.

On 8 January 2026, political activist Ebrahim Sharif was sentenced to six months’ imprisonment, effective immediately, and fined BHD 200 on charges of insulting Arab states and deliberately disseminating false news. He appeared before the Court of Appeal on 3 February, where the defense submitted a memorandum arguing that both the investigation and arrest procedures were unlawful because they had not been authorized by the Minister of Justice, as required by law. The Public Prosecution did not respond to the legal arguments raised by the defense. Judgment was postponed until 17 February, when the Court of Appeal upheld Sharif’s conviction but replaced the prison sentence with a written undertaking requiring him to report weekly to the Alternative Sentencing Centre.

Although the authorities had issued no public guidance on how wartime information should be handled or what could lawfully be published, and despite delaying the announcement of a blanket prohibition on photographing or disseminating information, images, or videos related to the conflict, they nevertheless began summoning and arresting individuals who had published footage or reports concerning missile and drone strikes over Bahraini territory.

On 28 February 2026, the Ministry of Interior announced that the Cybercrime Directorate, operating under the General Directorate of Anti-Corruption and Economic and Electronic Security, had arrested two individuals, aged 27 and 37, for allegedly misusing social media. According to the Ministry, they had livestreamed and published video recordings that allegedly contained material capable of undermining public security and order and inciting public opinion.

On 1 March 2026, photographer Sayed Baqer Al-Kamil was summoned by the Cybercrime Directorate after publishing videos on social media documenting air strikes targeting the U.S. military base in Al-Juffair. On 28 April 2026, he was sentenced to ten years’ imprisonment for filming the bombardment of U.S. military installations in Bahrain.

Al-Kamil appeared before the Court of Appeal on 4 June 2026. The hearing was adjourned until 7 June for oral arguments and later postponed again until 22 June. On 29 June 2026, the Court of Appeal upheld the original sentence.

On the same day, the Chief Prosecutor of the Cybercrime Prosecution announced that the Public Prosecution had ordered the pre-trial detention of two additional suspects pending investigation on allegations of publishing social media content deemed capable of undermining public security and causing panic among citizens and residents.

On 3 March 2026, the Cybercrime Directorate announced the arrest of two individuals accused of photographing military sites and publishing content expressing sympathy for the Iranian attacks on social media. Beginning that day, the Ministry of Interior publicly released the suspects’ photographs and full names, violating their right to privacy and undermining the presumption of innocence.

On 4 March 2026, four additional individuals were arrested after being accused of filming and publishing videos showing the aftermath of the Iranian attacks, expressing sympathy for Iran, and recording military sites. In its official statement, the Ministry of Interior characterized the alleged conduct as “high treason”, claiming that the published material misled public opinion, spread fear among citizens and residents, and undermined public security and public order. The statement reflected a significant escalation in the authorities’ rhetoric, elevating allegations related to wartime publication to accusations of high treason.

On the same day, the Bahrain Defence Force General Command prohibited the photographing, publication, or republication—whether directly or indirectly—of any material relating to military operations, the deployment of military units, or the movement of military vehicles and equipment. The authorities stated that the measure was intended “to safeguard the security and safety of the Kingdom of Bahrain and protect its supreme national interests under the exceptional circumstances arising from the blatant Iranian aggression against the country.” The order cited Article 17 bis of the Military Judiciary Law of 2002 and Article 135 of the Penal Code of 1976 as its legal basis.

Notably, this prohibition was announced only after numerous individuals had already been arrested. Additional arrests were subsequently carried out retroactively for photographs and videos that had been published before the authorities formally introduced these restrictions.

Escalating Arrests

By 5 March 2026, approximately 60 individuals, including children, had been detained in connection with social media posts related to the war or participation in peaceful demonstrations. On that day, four individuals were arrested and referred to the Public Prosecution on allegations of publishing videos that, according to the Ministry of Interior, expressed sympathy for the Iranian attacks—conduct the authorities characterized as “treason.” The following day, four additional individuals were arrested on charges of filming and broadcasting videos depicting the aftermath of the Iranian attacks.

On 7 March 2026, the Public Prosecution warned citizens and residents against publishing or sharing photographs or videos documenting the attacks and their aftermath, surveillance operations and their locations, or security measures implemented by the authorities. According to the Public Prosecution, such activities could undermine national efforts to respond to what it described as the unlawful aggression and jeopardize public safety and critical state infrastructure.

The Cybercrime Directorate continued its campaign on 9 March 2026, when six Bahraini citizens were arrested for filming, publishing, and republishing videos related to the consequences of the Iranian attacks, as well as for allegedly expressing sympathy for and glorifying those attacks. According to the authorities, the published content misled public opinion and spread fear among citizens and residents.

On the same day, criminal proceedings commenced against defendants accused of promoting and glorifying what the authorities described as Iran’s terrorist attacks against the Kingdom of Bahrain.

The Ministry of Interior continued the arrests on 11 March 2026, announcing the detention of six additional individuals accused of filming and publishing videos concerning the consequences of the Iranian attacks, expressing sympathy for Iran, and glorifying its actions. According to the Ministry, the dissemination of this content sought to mislead public opinion, spread fear among citizens and residents, and undermine public security and public order.

The following day, 12 March 2026, four additional individuals, including one woman, were arrested and accused of collaborating with the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) through individuals whom the authorities described as terrorist operatives based in Iran.

On 14 March 2026, the Ministry of Interior announced the arrest of six more individuals on allegations of publishing videos related to the consequences of the Iranian attacks, expressing sympathy for Iran, and glorifying its actions.

The arrests continued on 15 March 2026, when five individuals were detained. According to the Ministry of Interior, they were accused of collecting and transmitting sensitive information to the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps through alleged terrorist operatives based in Iran, as well as recruiting individuals to carry out plots against the Kingdom of Bahrain.

On 16 March 2026, additional defendants were referred to the Criminal Court on charges of publishing fabricated videos and disseminating false information allegedly harmful to public security.

Mohammed Al-Mousawi: Death Under Torture

The death of Mohammed Al-Mousawi on 27 March 2026 prompted widespread condemnation from local and international human rights organizations, as well as activists inside Bahrain. Al-Mousawi had been detained at a security checkpoint, disappeared for approximately one week, and his body was later returned bearing what were reported to be multiple signs of torture.

Among those who publicly reacted was environmental activist Mohammed Jawad, who was summoned by the Cybercrime Directorate on 7 April 2026 after posting a social media comment expressing shock and profound sorrow over Al-Mousawi’s death. He was subsequently detained for one week and transferred to Dry Dock Detention Centre. On 15 April 2026, he appeared once again before the Public Prosecution, where prosecutors ordered the extension of his detention for an additional two weeks on charges of “hatred of the regime.”

The Ministry of Interior subsequently announced that Mohammed Al-Mousawi had died while in the custody of Bahrain’s National Intelligence Agency. The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) called for a prompt, independent, and impartial investigation into his death, including allegations of enforced disappearance and torture during his detention.

On 4 May 2026, Salman Marhoon was arrested on charges of misusing social media by allegedly insulting a figure held in high esteem by a religious community. The following day, the Public Prosecution referred him to the Criminal Court on charges of insulting a religious figure through the social media platform X.

On 12 May 2026, authorities arrested Sheikh Ali Al-Jirdabi on allegations of publishing unlawful content on social media after he criticized the arrest of approximately 41 Shi’a clerics accused by the authorities of adhering to the doctrine of Wilayat al-Faqih (Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist, the political-religious doctrine underpinning Iran’s system of governance) and of belonging to what officials described as Iranian-linked cells.

On the same day, the High Criminal Court sentenced Badour Abdul Hamid to life imprisonment after convicting her of conspiring and cooperating with the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps to carry out hostile terrorist acts against the Kingdom of Bahrain. The court also ordered the confiscation of seized materials.

On 10 June 2026, the Ministry of Interior announced the arrest of a 27-year-old individual accused of using artificial intelligence technologies to generate and publish online content containing what the authorities described as false claims, misleading information, fabricated images, and inflammatory material capable of influencing public opinion and undermining civil peace and social stability.

Throughout this period, newspapers, television channels, and radio stations operating inside Bahrain published or broadcast only official government statements concerning these developments.

On 15 June 2026, twelve defendants were sentenced to ten years’ imprisonment, while some were additionally fined BHD 2,000. The court also ordered the confiscation of seized materials. The convictions included charges of supporting, encouraging, and endorsing what the authorities described as Iran’s terrorist attacks against Bahrain, obtaining and publishing restricted and sensitive information, photographing prohibited locations, and disseminating false news and rumours through social media.

Targeting Ashura: A Widespread and Systematic Campaign

Beginning in June 2026, the Bahraini authorities adopted a series of pre-emptive measures targeting preparations for the Ashura commemorations. Printing houses and civil society organizations were instructed not to produce religious banners or images associated with the occasion, while employees involved in organizing Ashura activities were required to sign written undertakings regarding the materials used during religious observances.

On 12 June 2026, the Northern Governorate Police announced the arrest of three individuals accused of selling clothing through social media bearing what the authorities described as inflammatory images and slogans glorifying terrorist figures—a reference to several Bahraini Shi’a clerics.

The authorities also imposed further restrictions on religious slogans displayed during Ashura. Several slogans traditionally used during the commemorations were prohibited, and mourning processions were permitted only under prior conditions that banned a number of widely used religious chants, including “Hayhat minna al-dhilla” (“Never to humiliation”), one of the most prominent slogans associated with Imam Hussein’s stand at Karbala. Numerous religious scholars and rowadid (Shi’a religious reciters) were barred from participating in the Ashura season after receiving telephone calls from the authorities, without being provided with any explanation.

On 18 June 2026, Bahraini security forces arrested three minors from the village of Sanabis—Ali Al-Hayat (17), Mohammed Hassan (16), and Qasim Mohammed (15)—after they appeared before investigators at Budaiya Police Station in connection with their participation in Ashura commemorations.

The authorities also detained dozens of ma’tam administrators for brief periods before releasing them, typically on allegations of exceeding authorized procession times or violating official instructions. Among those detained were the Chairman of the Board of the Sanabis Ma’tam on 19 June, accused of allowing a procession to continue 45 minutes beyond the approved time; religious reciter Abdulmunem Marzooq, detained for participating in the Sanabis mourning procession; Salman Zayer Ali, head of Ansar Al-Adala Ma’tam; Ali Al-Ghais and Sayed Abbas Al-Alawi from Diraz, who were detained for participating in Hussaini processions; and Mohammed Yousif Isa, head of Al-Markh Ma’tam.

On 20 June 2026, authorities arrested religious reciter Salman Amer Al-Shahabi in Manama. The following day, Mohammed Radhi, the custodian of Sheikh Ali Mosque in Abu Saiba, was detained for one week pending investigation after reciting the Ziyarat Imam Hussein, a devotional prayer traditionally recited during Ashura.

On 24 June, security forces raided East Karbabad Ma’tam, arresting its head, Isa Al-Moamen, along with several other individuals. On the same day, authorities arrested Sheikh Hussein Najib, Imam and preacher of Al-Khaif Mosque and head of the Southern Ma’tam in Al-Dair, as well as Hussaini preacher Sheikh Ali Ashour Al-Aali. Additional arrests targeted participants in the Manama mourning procession. Religious reciter Ahmed Abbas was also arrested for participating in Ashura ceremonies. The following day, Sheikh Ali Ashour Al-Aali was arrested after responding to a summons for questioning. Security forces also raided the village of Diraz and arrested four additional residents.

According to the Bahrain Forum for Human Rights, approximately 34 individuals were arrested, while 25 religious scholars and reciters were prohibited from participating in Ashura commemorations during the first seven days of the mourning season.

The Bahraini authorities also criticized a Reuters report which stated that Bahrain’s Sunni-led leadership was deeply concerned that increased Iranian financial resources could fuel unrest among the country’s predominantly Shi’a population, recalling the large-scale protests that took place during the Arab Spring. Reuters also noted that while Iran had denied involvement in fomenting unrest, it had publicly expressed support for Bahraini Shi’a activists in the past. On 24 June 2026, the Bahraini authorities issued an official statement condemning what they described as misleading assertions and insinuations in the Reuters report, accusing the news agency of promoting a sectarian narrative and making unfounded allegations about Bahrain and its leadership.

On 25 June 2026, the General Directorate of Anti-Corruption and Economic and Electronic Security announced the arrest of Fatima Haroon (47) on allegations of misusing social media by publishing content deemed insulting to a religious community and disparaging its religious rituals. However, the same authority took no comparable action in a number of complaints filed by Shi’a citizens concerning online content insulting Shi’a religious practices and accusing Shi’a Muslims of unbelief (takfir). On 29 June, Fatima Haroon was referred to the Criminal Court.

The Ministry of Interior continued its Ashura-related arrests on 26 June 2026, when Jassim Al-Mutawa from the village of Karzakan was arrested for reciting Ziyarat Ashura, while religious reciter Hussein Al-Majed was detained for participating in the Karzakan mourning procession on the afternoon of the ninth day of Muharram. On 27 June, Mahmoud Al-Zaki was arrested in Manama on charges of performing prayers at an unlicensed location.

On 29 June 2026, the Chairman of Saar Ma’tam, Sayed Saleh Al-Sayed Taqi, his deputy Sayed Hussein Mohammed, and religious reciters Mohammed Saeed and Mohammed Fadhel were arrested after being summoned while participating in the Zanjil mourning procession in the village of Saar.

The month of June concluded with the sentencing of one defendant to five years’ imprisonment, together with the confiscation of seized materials, after he was convicted of what the authorities described as acts of violence and sabotage committed during the Iranian attacks against the Kingdom of Bahrain in March 2026.

Observations and Recommendations

The Bahrain Press Association’s monitoring indicates that a substantial proportion of arrests, investigations, and criminal proceedings during the reporting period were marred by violations of due process and fair trial guarantees. The Association also documented consistent and credible allegations pointing to the re-emergence of torture, ill-treatment, and the coercion of detainees into signing pre-prepared confessions under threats of torture.

The Association documented cases in which detainees were denied prompt and effective access to legal counsel and family members during the initial stages of detention. In other instances, defense lawyers were prevented from accessing case files in a timely manner, significantly impairing their ability to prepare an effective defense.

Many prosecutions relied primarily on police reports, security investigations, and testimony from members of the security services, while lacking clear safeguards to enable defendants to challenge the evidence or to ensure its independent judicial scrutiny. The recurring nature of these practices—together with the timing of arrests, the profiles of those targeted, and the striking similarity of the charges brought against them—suggests the existence of a coordinated pattern characterized more by political retaliation and selective targeting than by the prosecution of identifiable criminal offences.

The Association further documented cases in which arrest procedures, criminal investigations, referrals to trial, and judicial proceedings themselves raised serious concerns regarding compliance with procedural guarantees established under both Bahraini legislation and international standards governing the right to a fair trial.

Recommendations

In light of the findings documented in this report, the Bahrain Press Association recommends that the Bahraini authorities:

1. Immediately release all individuals detained solely for the peaceful exercise of their rights to freedom of opinion and expression or for participating in religious observances, and drop all charges against them. 
2. Cease using national security, counter-terrorism, and cybercrime legislation to criminalize peaceful expression, journalistic activity, or religious beliefs. 
3. Guarantee full respect for due process from the moment of arrest, including immediate access to legal counsel and family members, timely disclosure of case files, and the effective exercise of the right to legal defense throughout all stages of investigation and trial. 
4. Conduct independent judicial reviews of convictions in cases involving freedom of opinion and expression, and investigate allegations of procedural violations, torture, ill-treatment, and the denial of fair trial guarantees. 
5. End the targeting of civil society activists, social media users, religious scholars, and individuals participating in religious observances because of their peaceful activities, opinions, or beliefs. 
6. Ensure full compliance with the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), particularly the provisions relating to freedom of expression, freedom of religion or belief, and the right to a fair trial, and bring domestic legislation into conformity with these obligations. 
7. Invite the relevant United Nations Special Rapporteurs—including those on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, the independence of judges and lawyers, arbitrary detention, and freedom of religion or belief—to monitor these developments and conduct an official visit to Bahrain to assess the human rights situation on the ground.